18. PANJABI, EASTERN (PUNJABI, GURMUKHI, GURUMUKHI)*
[PNJ] 25,690,000 in India (1994 IMA); 43,000 in Malaysia (1993); 10,000 in Kenya (1995); 9,677 in Bangladesh (1961 census); 1,167 in Fiji; 25,700,000 in all countries. Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Jammu, Kashmir. Also in United Arab Emirates, Singapore, United Kingdom. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Panjabi. Dialect: PANJABI
PROPER. Western Panjabi is distinct from Eastern Panjabi, although there is a chain of dialects to Western Hindi (Urdu). Gurumukhi is associated with Sikhs. Gurmukhi script used; a variant of Devanagari script. Subdialects of Panjabi Proper: Majhi, Doab, Bhatyiana, Powadhi, Malwa, Bathi. See separate entries for Majhi, Dogri-Kangra. National language. Sikh. Braille code available. Bible 1959-1984. NT 1815, in press (1996). Bible portions 1818-1954.
19. PANJABI, MIRPUR*
[PMU] (20,000 to 30,000 in United Kingdom; 1981). Mirpur area, Kashmir, near Pakistan border. Also United Kingdom,
possibly in Pakistan. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northwestern zone, Lahnda. Distinct from Western Panjabi, although closely related. Survey needed.
20. PANJABI, WESTERN (WESTERN PUNJABI, LAHNDA, LAHANDA, LAHNDI)*
[PNB] 52,000 in India (1991 IMA); 30,000,000 to 45,000,000 in Pakistan (1981 census). Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Haryana. Also in Pakistan, Great Britain, United Arab Emirates and other Gulf countries, other European countries, Africa, Canada, USA. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northwestern zone, Lahnda. Panjabi is a major language. There is a continuum of varieties between Eastern and Western Panjabi, and with Western Hindi and Urdu. 'Lahnda' is a name given earlier for Western Panjabi; an attempt to cover the dialect continuum between Hindko, Pahari-Potwari, and Western Panjabi in the north and Sindhi in the south. Several dozen dialects. Perso-Arabic script is used, but not often written in Pakistan. Movies. Muslim; Christian. NT 1819-1952. Bible portions 1885-1922.
· PANJABI, WESTERN (WESTERN PUNJABI, LAHNDA, LAHANDA, LAHNDI)**
[PNB] 30,000,000 to 45,000,000 in Pakistan (1981 census); 52,000 in India (1991 IMA). Mainly in the Punjab area of Pakistan. Also in Great Britain, United Arab Emirates and other Gulf countries, other European countries, Africa, Canada, USA. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northwestern zone, Lahnda. Panjabi is a major language. There is a continuum of varieties between Eastern and Western Panjabi, and with Western Hindi and Urdu. 'Lahnda' is a name given earlier for Western Panjabi; an attempt to cover the dialect continuum between Hindko, Pahari-Potwari, and Western Panjabi in the north and Sindhi in the south. Several dozen dialects. Perso-Arabic script is used, but not often written in Pakistan. Movies, radio, and television broadcasts in Panjabi. The Balmiki (Valmiki) sweeper caste in Attock District speak a dialect of Panjabi. Mainly Muslim; Christian. NT 1819-1952. Bible portions 1885-1922.
21. SHINA (SINA, SHINAKI)**
[SCL] 300,000 in Pakistan (1981 census); 20,416 in India (1994); 320,000 in all countries. Northern Areas including Gilgit District, scattered villages in Yasin and Ishkoman valleys, Punial, Gilgit, Haramosh, lower Hunza Valley; Diamer District, Chilas area, Darel and Tangir valleys, Astor Valley; scattered areas of Baltistan District, Satpara, Kharmang, Kachura, and other small valleys; NWFP, east part of Kohistan District, Sazin, Harban. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northwestern zone, Dardic, Shina. Dialects: GILGITI (GILGIT, PUNIAL, HUNZA-NAGAR, BAGROTE, HARAMOSH, RONDU, BUNJI), ASTORI (ASTOR, GUREZI, DRAS, SATPARA, KHARMANGI), CHILASI KOHISTANI (CHILAS, DAREL, TANGIR, SAZIN, HARBAN). 79% to 99% lexical similarity within the Gilgiti (Northern) dialect cluster, 81T to 96% among the Astori (Eastern) cluster, 84% to 98% among the Chilas (Diamer) cluster. Gilgit functions as the language standard. Shina is the primary language in Gilgit and Diamer districts. 'Brocpa' is the name used for Shina speakers in Baltistan and Ladakh. 'Brokskat' refers to their language. 'Brokskat' is used semi-officially in India to refer to a highly divergent variety of Shina spoken by Buddhists. Below 20% literacy rate. Muslim, some Shi'a, some Sunni. Bible portions 1929. Survey needed.
· SHINA (SINA, SHINAKI)*
[SCL] 20,416 in India (1994 IMA); 300,000 in Pakistan (1981); 320,000 in all countries. Dras Valley and Gurais area in Kishenganga Valley near the cease fire line in northern Kashmir. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northwestern zone, Dardic, Shina. Dialects: DRASI, GUREZI. Speakers are called Shin. Many in Dras Valley also speak Purik, but there are villages in Dras Valley that are pure Shina-speaking. People are open to education and jobs outside the area.Brokskat is quite divergent. Gurezi and Dras are Sunni and Shi'a Muslim. Bible portions 1929. Survey needed.
· SHINA, KOHISTANI (PALASI-KOHISTANI, KOHISTANI, KOHISTYO)**
[PLK] 200,000 (1981 census). East bank of the Indus in Kohistan District, NWFP, in the Jalkot, Palas, and Kolai valleys and surrounding areas. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northwestern zone, Dardic, Shina. Dialects: PALASI, JALKOTI, KOLAI. A somewhat divergent variety of Shina linguistically and socially. Closer to Shina of Chilas, but more distinct from that of Gilgit. Mainly Sunni Muslim. Survey needed.
22. ZANGSKARI (ZANSKARI, ZASKARI)*
[ZAU] 8,000 to 10,000 (1984 Dayton and Wilson). Zaskar Mts., Kashmir, southernmost end of Kargil District. Between Himalayas and Indus River Valley. Next to Leh-Ladakhi area and Kargil-Purik area. Possibly Tibet. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Bodic, Bodish, Tibetan, Western. People are somewhat bilingual in Leh dialect of Ladakhi; inherent and learned comprehension needs investigation. Closer linguistically to ChangThang than to Ladakhi. Highest literacy rate in
Tibetan script in Ladakh. Small primary schools throughout Zanskar, lower high schools in Karsha and Zangla, high school in Padum. 90% of students are male. Nearly all teachers are from outside the area. People trade grain with ChangThang to acquire wool and salt. Buddhist. Bible portions 1945-1951. Survey needed.
23. URDU**
[URD] 10,719,000 mother tongue speakers in Pakistan (1993), 7.57% of the population; 45,773,000 in India (1994
IMA); 600,000 in Bangladesh (1993); 18,500 in Bahrain (1979 WA); 17,800 in Oman (1980 WA); 15,400 in Qatar; 382,000 in Saudi Arabia; 3,562 in Fiji (1980 WA); 23,000 in Germany; 14,000 in Norway; 56,584,000 or more in all countries. Also in Afghanistan, South Africa, Mauritius, United Arab Emirates, Thailand, United Kingdom. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Western Hindi, Hindustani. The second or third language of most Pakistanis for whom it is not the mother tongue.Arabic script in Nastaliq style with several extra characters is used. Intelligible with Hindi, but has formal vocabulary borrowed from Arabic and Persian. The Valmiki (Balmiki) sweeper caste speaks standard Urdu or Hindi and do not have their own language. Valmiki in Attock District are reported to speak a dialect of Panjabi. National language. Muslim. Braille Bible. Bible 1843-1958. NT 1758-1993. Bible portions 1747-1894.
· URDU (ISLAMI, UNDRI, URUDU)*
[URD] 45,773,000 in India (1994 IMA); 8,000,000 in Pakistan (1988); 3,562 in Fiji; 170,000 in South Africa; 30,000 in Oman; 20,000 in Bahrain; 19,950 in Qatar; 16,800 in Germany; 54,000,000 or more in all countries. Jammu and Kashmir and by Muslims in many parts of India. Also in Afghanistan, USA. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Western Hindi, Hindustani. Dialects: DAKHINI (DAKANI, DECCAN, DESIA, MIRGAN), PINJARI, REKHTA (REKHTI). Dakhini is freer of Persian and Arabic loans than Urdu. Both are written in Arabic script. Rekhta is a form of Urdu used in poetry. State language and medium of instruction in government schools in Jammu and Kashmir. National language. Muslim. Braille Bible. Bible 1843-1958. NT 1758-1993. Bible portions 1747-1894.
24. HINDI (KHARI BOLI, KHADI BOLI)*
[HND] 180,000,000 in India (1991 UBS); 346,513,000 or nearly 50% including second language users in India (1994 IMA); 346,000 in Bangladesh (1993); 26,253 in USA (1970 census); 685,170 in Mauritius; 890,292 in South Africa; 232,760 in Yemen; 147,000 in Uganda; 5,000 in Singapore; 2,900 in Nepal; 11,200 in New Zealand (1987); 24,500 in Germany (1984 Time); 182,000,000 in all countries or more. 418,000,000 including second language users (1995 WA). Throughout northern India: Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, northern Bihar, Himachal Pradesh. Also in Kenya, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Western Hindi, Hindustani. Hindi, Hindustani, Urdu could be considered co-dialects, but have important sociolinguistic differences. Hindi uses the Devanagari writing system, and formal vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit, de-Persianized, de-Arabicized. Literary Hindi, or Hindi-Urdu, has four varieties: Hindi (High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, Literary Hindi, Standard Hindi); Urdu; Dakhini; Rekhta. State language of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh. Languages and dialects in the Western Hindi group are Hindustani, Bangaru, Braj Bhasha, Kanauji, Bundeli; see separate entries. National language. Typology: SOV. Hindu. Braille Bible portions. Bible 1818-1987. NT 1811-1992. Bible portions 1806-1962.
25. ENGLISH*
[ENG] Second language speakers: 11,021,610 (1961 census); 322,000,000 in all countries (1995 WA). Indo-European, Germanic, West, North Sea, English. Language for official use. Bible 1535-1989. NT 1525-1991. Bible portions 1530-1987.
· ENGLISH**
[ENG] Mainly second language speakers in Pakistan; 322,000,000 in all countries (1995 WA). Indo-European, Germanic, West, North Sea, English. National language. Bible 1535-1989. NT 1525-1985. Bible portions 1530-1987
JAMMU AND KASHMIR:
DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES:
The area comprising the erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir is one of remarkable linguistic diversity. Within it two major language families, the Indo-European and the Sino-Tibetan, each dominate over extensive areas, while an as-yet-unclassified language, Burushaski, occupies a relatively small niche along the border with China and Afghanistan. Among the Indo-European languages, Kashmiri, Shina, and several other local tongues (spoken over much of the Northern Areas and in a small portion of Kargil district) form a distinct Dardic group, whose area of dominance also extends across the northern part of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan and into northeastern Afghanistan. Whether or not this group constitutes a separate sub-family within the Indo-European family is a question still debated by linguists; but none doubts the linguistic affinity of Dardic languages. Kashmiri, despite accounting for the largest number of speakers in the state, occupies only a relatively small area centering on the Vale of Kashmir.
Punjabi, accounting for the second most numerous group of speakers, dominates in Azad Kashmir, while Dogri, often considered a dialect of Punjabi, is the principal language of Jammu, but its dominance there is much less pronounced than that of Kashmiri in Kashmir. Also within the Indo-European family are several locally dominant languages, most notably Gojri, the language spoken by the Gujar and Bakerwal pastoral communities, and various dialects collectively grouped under the designation "Pahari" (i.e., of the mountains). All these are now lumped by the Indian census under the term "Hindi," in marked contrast to census practice up to the year 1971; and it is no longer possible to disaggregate them. Finally, two mutually comprehensible dialects of Tibetan, Balti and Ladakhi, dominate in Pakistani-held Baltistan and Indian-held Ladakh respectively. The following table provides some overall data:
Regional Distribution of Major Languages, 1981 Region Principal LanguageSpeakers (1,000s)% of Total PopulationSecond language*Speakers (1,000s)% of PopulationIndian
heldareasKashmirKashmiri2,80689.5"Hindi"**2457.8 JammuDogri1,45053.3"Hindi"**774285
LadakhTibetan12190.2
TotalKashmiri3,13652.3Dogri1,45424.3Pakistani-heldareasAzad KashmirPunjabi***1,69385.4 NorthernAreasShina****?Balti****?TotalPunjabi*** 1,70166.5Shina****?Grand total Kashmiri3,16637.1Punjabi***1,87722* Indicated only where in excess of 5.0%.
** For explanation, see text above.
*** Probably overcounted, with commensurate undercounting of Pahari and Gojri.
**** Percentages cannot be specified in that Shina, other Dardic languages, Balti, and Burushaski are all grouped by census under "Others." Based on data of pre-independence censuses, Shina (spoken mainly in Gilgit and Diamir Districts) and Balti (spoken in Baltistan) are believed to rank first and second respectively within the Northern Areas.
In interpreting the accompanying map and the foregoing table an important caveat is in order: the transitions from one language area to another do not normally follow administrative boundaries. For example, in Kashmir, the lowlands of all districts are overwhelmingly Kashmiri-speaking while the numerically dominant population in the adjoining hills speaks Gojri. Similar situations apply in respect to speakers of Dogri and Paha.